Self-esteem is a term used in psychology Psychology is the study of human or animal mental functions and behaviors. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is a psychologist. Psychologists are classified as social or behavioral scientists. Psychological research can be considered either basic or applied. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in to reflect a person's A person is any individual human being. The direct plural term is "persons." The term people is the general plural of "person," and is used to refer to person plurally in a range from 'a few persons' up to 'all people' (cf. humanism). "People" is often used to refer to an entire nation or ethnic group, and in this overall evaluation or appraisal of his or her own worth. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a proposition or premise to be true (for example, "I am competent" or "I am incompetent") and emotions Emotion is the complex psychophysiological experience of an individual's state of mind as interacting with biochemical and environmental influences. In humans, emotion fundamentally involves "physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience". Emotion is associated with mood, temperament, personality and disposition, such as triumph, despair, pride and shame. A person's self-esteem may be reflected in their behaviour, such as in assertiveness, shyness, confidence or caution. Self-esteem can apply specifically to a particular dimension (for example, "I believe I am a good writer, and feel proud of that in particular") or have global extent (for example, "I believe I am a good person, and feel proud of myself in general").

Psychologists usually regard self-esteem as an enduring personality characteristic ("trait" self-esteem), though normal, short-term variations ("state" self-esteem) also exist.

Synonyms or near-synonyms of self-esteem include: self-worth,^[1] self-regard,^[2] self-respect,^[3][4] self-love (which can express overtones of self-promotion),^[5] and self-integrity. Self-esteem is distinct from self-confidence The socio-psychological concept of self-confidence relates to self-assuredness in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc., sometimes manifested excessively and self-efficacy Self-efficacy has been defined in a variety of ways: as the belief that one is capable of performing in a certain manner to attain certain goals, as a person’s belief about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives. It is a belief that one has the capabilities to, which involve beliefs about ability and future performance.

Definitions

Given its long and varied history, the term has had no fewer than three major types of definition, each of which has generated its own tradition of research, findings, and practical applications:

1. The original definition presents self-esteem as a ratio found by dividing one’s successes in areas of life of importance to a given individual As commonly used, an individual is a person or any specific object in a collection. In the 15th century and earlier, and also today within the fields of statistics and metaphysics, individual means "indivisible", typically describing any numerically singular thing, but sometimes meaning "a person." . From the seventeenth by the failures in them or one’s “success / pretensions”.^[6] Problems with this approach come from making self-esteem contingent upon success: this implies inherent instability because failure can occur at any moment.^[7]
2. In the mid 1960s Morris Rosenberg and social-learning theorists defined self-esteem in terms of a stable sense of personal worth or worthiness, (see Rosenberg self esteem scale The scale is a ten-item Likert scale with items answered on a four-point scale — from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The original sample for which the scale was developed consisted of 5,024 high school juniors and seniors from 10 randomly selected schools in New York State). This became the most frequently used definition for research, but involves problems of boundary-definition, making self-esteem indistinguishable from such things as narcissism Narcissism is the personality trait of egotism, vanity, conceit, or simple selfishness. Applied to a social group, it is sometimes used to denote elitism or an indifference to the plight of others or simple bragging.^[8]
3. Nathaniel Branden Nathaniel Branden, né Nathan Blumenthal , is a psychotherapist and writer best known today for his work in the psychology of self-esteem. A one-time associate of novelist Ayn Rand, Branden had a prominent role in promoting Rand's philosophy, Objectivism in 1969 briefly defined self-esteem as "...the experience of being competent to cope with the basic challenges of life and being worthy of happiness". This two-factor approach, as some have also called it, provides a balanced definition that seems to be capable of dealing with limits of defining self-esteem primarily in terms of competence or worth alone.^[9]

Branden’s (1969) description of self-esteem includes the following primary properties:

1. self-esteem as a basic human need, i.e., "...it makes an essential contribution to the life process", "...is indispensable to normal and healthy self-development, and has a value for survival."
2. self-esteem as an automatic and inevitable consequence of the sum of individuals' choices in using their consciousness
3. something experienced as a part of, or background to, all of the individuals thoughts, feelings and actions.

Self esteem is a concept of personality, for it to grow, we need to have self worth, and this self worth will be sought from embracing challenges that result in the showing of success.

Compare the usage of terms such as self-love or self-confidence.

Implicit self-esteem Implicit self-esteem refers to a person's disposition to evaluate themselves in a spontaneous, automatic, or unconscious manner. It contrasts with explicit self-esteem, which entails more conscious and reflective self-evaluation. Both explicit and implicit self-esteem are constituents of self-esteem refers to a person's disposition to evaluate themselves positively or negatively in a spontaneous, automatic, or unconscious manner. It contrasts with explicit self-esteem, which entails more conscious and reflective self-evaluation. Both explicit self-esteem and implicit self-esteem are subtypes of self-esteem proper.

Implicit self-esteem is assessed using indirect measures of cognitive processing Cognition is the scientific term for "the process of thought". Usage of the term varies in different disciplines; for example in psychology and cognitive science, it usually refers to an information processing view of an individual's psychological functions. Other interpretations of the meaning of cognition link it to the development of. These include the Name Letter Task This effect has been found in a vast range of studies. In one such scenario, participants were given a list of letters, one of which contained letters from their own name and the other of which contained other letters, and asked them to circle the preferred letter. This study found that, even when accounting for all other variables, letters^[10] and the Implicit Association Test The Implicit Association Test is an experimental method within social psychology designed to measure the strength of automatic association between mental representations of objects (concepts) in memory. The IAT requires the rapid categorization of various stimulus objects, such that easier pairings (and faster responses) are interpreted as being.^[11] Such indirect measures are designed to reduce awareness of, or control of, the process of assessment. When used to assess implicit self-esteem, they feature stimuli designed to represent the self The self is a key construct in several schools of psychology, broadly referring to the cognitive and affective representation of one's identity. The earliest formulation of the self in modern psychology from the distinction between the self as I, the subjective knower, and the self as Me, the object that is known. Current views of the self in, such as personal pronouns (e.g., "I") or letters in one's name.

Measurement

For the purposes of empirical research, psychologists typically assess self-esteem by a self-report inventory A self-report inventory is a type of psychological test in which a person fills out a survey or questionnaire with or without the help of an investigator. Self-report inventories often ask direct questions about symptoms, behaviors, and personality traits associated with one or many mental disorders or personality types in order to easily gain yielding a quantitative result. They establish the validity and reliability of the questionnaire prior to its use. Researchers are becoming more interested in measures of implicit self-esteem Implicit self-esteem refers to a person's disposition to evaluate themselves in a spontaneous, automatic, or unconscious manner. It contrasts with explicit self-esteem, which entails more conscious and reflective self-evaluation. Both explicit and implicit self-esteem are constituents of self-esteem.

Whereas popular lore recognizes just "high" self-esteem and "low" self-esteem, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale The scale is a ten-item Likert scale with items answered on a four-point scale — from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The original sample for which the scale was developed consisted of 5,024 high school juniors and seniors from 10 randomly selected schools in New York State (1965) and the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (1967/1981) both quantify it in more detail, and feature among the most widely used systems for measuring self-esteem. The Rosenberg test usually uses a ten-question battery scored on a four-point response system that requires participants to indicate their level of agreement with a series of statements about themselves. The Coopersmith Inventory uses a 50-question battery over a variety of topics and asks subjects whether they rate someone as similar or dissimilar to themselves.^[12]

Theories

Many early theories suggested that self-esteem is a basic human need or motivation. American psychologist Abraham Maslow Abraham Harold Maslow was an American psychologist. He is noted for his conceptualization of a "hierarchy of human needs", and is considered the founder of humanistic psychology, for example, included self-esteem in his hierarchy of needs. He described two different forms of esteem: the need for respect from others and the need for self-respect, or inner self-esteem.^[13] Respect from others entails recognition, acceptance, status, and appreciation, and was believed to be more fragile and easily lost than inner self-esteem. According to Maslow, without the fulfillment of the self-esteem need, individuals will be driven to seek it and unable to grow and obtain self-actualization Self-actualization is a term that has been used in various psychology theories, often in slightly different ways . The term was originally introduced by the organismic theorist Kurt Goldstein for the motive to realize one's full potential. In his view, it is the master motive—indeed, the only real motive a person has, all others being merely.

Modern theories of self-esteem explore the reasons humans are motivated to maintain a high regard for themselves. Sociometer Sociometer theory is a theory of self-esteem from an evolutionary psychological perspective that proposes that state self-esteem is a gauge of interpersonal relationships. This theoretical perspective was first introduced by Mark Leary and colleagues in 1995 and later expanded on by Kirkpatrick and Ellis theory maintains that self-esteem evolved to check one's level of status and acceptance in ones' social group In the social sciences a group can be defined as two or more humans who interact with one another, accept expectations and obligations as members of the group, and share a common identity. By this definition, society can be viewed as a large group, though most social groups are considerably smaller. According to terror management theory Terror management theory is a theory within psychology that focuses on, according to the theory, the implicit emotional reactions of people that occur when confronted with the psychological terror of knowing we will eventually die. Empirical support for TMT has originated from more than 175 published experiments which have been conducted cross-, self-esteem serves a protective function and reduces anxiety about life and death.^[14]

Quality and level of self-esteem

Level and quality of self-esteem, though correlated, remain distinct. Level-wise, one can exhibit high but fragile self-esteem (as in narcissism Narcissism is the personality trait of egotism, vanity, conceit, or simple selfishness. Applied to a social group, it is sometimes used to denote elitism or an indifference to the plight of others) or low but stable self-esteem (as in humility Humility is the quality of being modest, reverential, even politely submissive, and never being arrogant, contemptuous, rude or even self-abasing. Humility, in various interpretations, is widely seen as a virtue in many religious and philosophical traditions, being connected with notions of transcendent unity with the universe or the divine, and). However, investigators can indirectly assess the quality of self-esteem in several ways:

1. in terms of its constancy over time (stability)
2. in terms of its independence of meeting particular conditions (non-contingency)
3. in terms of its ingrained nature at a basic psychological level (implicitness or automatized)

Interventions

A number of interventions that attempt to improve self-esteem have been developed, implemented, and studied. These interventions have been tailored to address the unique characteristics of specific groups including adolescents, adults, and special populations. Some examples of these interventions include:

• FRIENDS Emotional Health Program - This intervention consists of 10 sessions that focus on teaching 9-10 year old children to replace unhelpful and anxiety producing thoughts with helpful thoughts. The intervention was developed to teach children to face and overcome challenges and problems. In order to do this children are introduced to a 7-step process: F-feeling worried? R- relax and feel good, I- inner thoughts, E- explore thoughts, N- nice work so reward yourself, D- don't forget to practice, S- stay calm, you know how to cope. Studies of the intervention performed in the US, UK, and Hong Kong have all shown significant increase in measures of self-esteem in children who participated in the program.^[15][16]
• Self-Esteem Enhancement Program (SEEP) Dalgas-Pelish (2006) reported that many decreases in self-esteem have been observed during the transition from elementary to middle school and therefore found that it is very important to provide preventative self-esteem interventions at a young age. The intervention included 4 lessons consisting of definitions of self-esteem, awareness of how the media and peers influence self-esteem, and activities related to the improvement of self-esteem. Factors affecting self-esteem that were taken into account include: gender, ethnicity, age, socioeconomic status, genetic size, health, home environment, relationships with parents, parenting style, and relationships with friends. Increases in measures of self-esteem were displayed among the children who participated. Increase was related to gender of the child, socioeconomic status, and the presence of friends. The largest increases were seen in girls, individuals with low socio-economic status, and children with friends.^[17]
• Social Cognitive Training Intervention Barrett, Webster, Wallis (1999) developed an intervention that consisted of self talk and modification of negative thinking, use of positive thinking, communication, problem solving and perception, processes of instruction, coaching, modeling, rehearsal, self observation, group trainer and peer feedback, and praise. These techniques were intended to shape and reinforce new and improved skills. Participants also completed weekly homework assignments. Fifty-one students ages 13–16 participated in the intervention and showed significant increase in measures of self-esteem.^[18]
• I Am Super Self-Esteem Module - This intervention was developed in Québec, Canada by Tania Lacomte et al. (1990) in an effort to increase the self esteem of those suffering from psychosis, specifically individuals diagnosed with Schizophrenia. This 24 session, group therapy module is divided into 5 key building blocks that assist individuals in developing their senses of: security, identity, belonging, purpose, and competence. One study conducted by Borras, et al. (2009) found that intervention participants displayed increases in self-esteem, self-assertion, and coping strategies as well as decreased negative automatic thoughts, and psychotic symptoms^[19]
• uniquely ME! - The Girl Scout/Dove Dove is a personal care brand owned by Unilever. Dove is primarily made from synthetic surfactants, as well as some vegetable oil based soap ingredients, such as sodium palm kernelate. Dove is formulated to be pH neutral, with a pH that is usually between 6.5 and 7.5 Self-Esteem Program is targeted at young girls ages 8–17, and aims to educate healthy self-esteem. It provides the skills necessary for young girls to face life's challenges.^[20]

Self-esteem, grades and relationships

From the late 1970s to the early 1990s many Americans assumed as a matter of course that students' self-esteem acted as a critical factor in the grades that they earn in school, in their relationships An interpersonal relationship is an association between two or more people that may range from fleeting to enduring. This association may be based on limerence, love and liking, regular business interactions, or some other type of social commitment. Interpersonal relationships take place in a great variety of contexts, such as family, friends, with their peers, and in their later success in life Personal life is the course of an individual's life, especially when viewed as the sum of personal choices contributing to one's personal identity. It is a common notion in modern existence—although more so in more prosperous parts of the world such as Western Europe and North America. In these areas, there are service industries which are. Under this assumption, some American groups created programs which aimed to increase the self-esteem of students. Until the 1990s little peer-reviewed and controlled research took place on this topic.

The concept of self-improvement has undergone dramatic change since 1911, when Ambrose Bierce Ambrose Gwinnett Bierce was an American editorialist, journalist, short story writer, fabulist and satirist. Today, he is best known for his short story, "An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge" and his satirical lexicon, The Devil's Dictionary mockingly defined self-esteem as "an erroneous appeasement." Good and bad character are now known as "personality differences". Rights have replaced responsibilities. The research on ego Id, ego, and super-ego are the three parts of the psychic apparatus defined in Sigmund Freud's structural model of the psyche; they are the three theoretical constructs in terms of whose activity and interaction mental life is described. According to this model of the psyche, the id is the set of uncoordinated instinctual trends; the ego is the centrism and ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism is the tendency to believe that one's ethnic or cultural group is centrally important, and that all other groups are measured in relation to one's own. The ethnocentric individual will judge other groups relative to his or her own particular ethnic group or culture, especially with concern to language, behavior, customs, and religion that informed discussion of human growth and development in the mid-20th century is ignored; indeed, the terms themselves are considered politically incorrect. A revolution has taken place in the vocabulary of self. Words that imply responsibility or accountability — self-criticism, self-denial, self-discipline, self-control, self-effacement, self-mastery, self-reproach, and self-sacrifice — are no longer in fashion. The language most in favor is that which exalts the self — self-expression, self-assertion, self-indulgence, self-realization, self-approval, self-acceptance, self-love, and the ubiquitous self-esteem.^{[cite this quote]} — Ruggiero, 2000

Peer-reviewed research undertaken since then has not validated previous assumptions. Recent research indicates that inflating students' self-esteem in and of itself has no positive effect on grades. One study has shown that inflating self-esteem by itself can actually decrease grades.^[21]

High self-esteem correlates highly with self-reported happiness. However, it is not clear which, if either, necessarily leads to the other.^[22] Additionally, self-esteem has been found to be related to forgiveness in close relationships, in that people with high self-esteem will be more forgiving than people with low self-esteem.^[23]

The relationship involving self-esteem and academic Academia, Acadème, or the Academy are collective terms for the community of students and scholars engaged in higher education and research results does not signify that high self-esteem contributes to high academic results. It simply means that high self- esteem may be accomplished due to high academic performance.^[24]

“Attempts by pro-esteem advocates to encourage self-pride in students solely by reason of their uniqueness as human beings will fail if feelings of well-being are not accompanied by well-doing. It is only when students engage in personally meaningful endeavors for which they can be justifiably proud that self-confidence grows, and it is this growing self-assurance that in turn triggers further achievement.”^[25]

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