Zoology (correctly pronounced /zoʊˈɒlədʒi/, though often /zuːˈɒlədʒi/^[1]), occasionally also spelt zo-ölogy An umlaut is the orthographical representation of a type of sound shift in spoken language. A very similar diacritical mark is used to signify a linguistic hiatus. In modern computer systems (using Unicode), umlaut and diaeresis are represented identically: ä represents both a-umlaut and a-trema, is the branch of biology Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy that focuses on the structure, function, behavior, and evolution of animals Animals are a major group of mostly multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently. All animals are also.

History

Main articles: History of zoology (through 1859) This article considers the history of zoology before the theory of evolution proposed by Charles Darwin in 1859, History of zoology (1859–1912)

Humans have been fascinated by the other members of the animal Animals are a major group of mostly multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently. All animals are also kingdom throughout history. In early Europe Europe is one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus region (Specification of borders) and the Black Sea to the southeast. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean and, they gathered up and catalogued descriptions of strange animals Animals are a major group of mostly multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently. All animals are also from distant lands or deep seas A sea generally refers to a large body of salt water, but the term is used in other contexts as well. Most commonly, the term refers to a large expanse of saline water connected with an ocean, and is commonly used as a synonym for ocean. It is also used sometimes to describe a large saline lake that lacks a natural outlet, such as the Caspian Sea, such as are recorded in the Physiologus and in the works of Albertus Magnus Saint Albertus Magnus, O.P. , also known as Saint Albert the Great and Albert of Cologne, was a Dominican friar and bishop who achieved fame for his comprehensive knowledge of and advocacy for the peaceful coexistence of science and religion. Those such as James A. Weisheipl and Joachim R. Söder have referred to him as the greatest German. His work was based largely on the writings of Aristotle Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most (384–322 BC). Magnus' De animalibus libri XXVI is not the only volume of his commentaries on Natural History Natural history is the scientific research of plants or animals, leaning more towards observational rather than experimental methods of study, and encompasses more research published in magazines than in academic journals. Grouped among the natural sciences, natural history is the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms, but it remains one of the most extensive studies of zoological observation published before modern times.^[2] The disciplinary study of zoology also found root in Arabia The Arabian Peninsula , Arabia, Arabistan, and the Arabian subcontinent is a peninsula in Southwest Asia at the junction of Africa and Asia. The area is an important part of the Middle East and plays a critically important geopolitical role because of its vast reserves of oil and natural gas and China China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity. Arab scholar Al-Jahizz (781–868) wrote the Book of Animals. Two great Chinese authors in this field were Su Song Su Song (1020–1101 AD) was a renowned Chinese polymath who specialized himself as a statesman, astronomer, cartographer, horologist, pharmacologist, mineralogist, zoologist, botanist, mechanical and architectural engineer, poet, antiquarian, and ambassador of the Song Dynasty (960–1279) (1020-1101) and Shen Kuo Shen Kuo or Shen Gua (1031–1095), style name Cunzhong (存中) and pseudonym Mengqi (now usually given as Mengxi) Weng (夢溪翁), was a polymathic Chinese scientist and statesman of the Song Dynasty (960–1279). Excelling in many fields of study and statecraft, he was a mathematician, astronomer, meteorologist, geologist, zoologist, botanist,(1031-1095) of the Song Dynasty The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a permanent standing navy. This dynasty also saw the first period, yet there were many others. In Roman The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean. The term is used to describe the Roman state during and after the time of the first emperor, Augustus times, the main writer about natural history was Pliny the Elder Gaius Plinius Secundus , better known as Pliny the Elder, was a Roman author, naturalist, and natural philosopher as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian. Spending most of his spare time studying, writing or investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field, he wrote an (23–79).

Scientific zoology really started in the 16th century During the 16th century, Spain and Portugal explored and conquered the world seas. Latin America became a Spanish colony, while Portugal became the master of the Indian Ocean with the awakening of the new spirit of observation and exploration, but for a long time ran a separate course uninfluenced by the progress of the medical Medicine is the science and art of healing humans. It includes a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Before scientific medicine, healing arts were practiced along with alchemical and ritual practices that developed out of religious and cultural traditions. The term & studies of anatomy Anatomy is a branch of biology and medicine that is the consideration of the structure of living things. It is a general term that includes human anatomy, animal anatomy (zootomy) and plant anatomy (phytotomy). In some of its facets anatomy is closely related to embryology, comparative anatomy and comparative embryology, through common roots in and physiology Physiology is the science of the functioning of living systems. It is a subcategory of biology. In physiology, the scientific method is applied to determine how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical function that they have in a living system. The word physiology is from Ancient Greek: φύσις. The spirit of inquiry which now for the first time became general showed itself in the anatomical schools of the Italian Italy (pronounced /ˈɪtəli/ ; Italian: Italia [iˈtaːlja]), officially the Italian Republic (Italian: Repubblica italiana), is a country located partly on the European Continent and partly on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe and on the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily and Sardinia. Italy shares its northern, Alpine universities of the 16th century During the 16th century, Spain and Portugal explored and conquered the world seas. Latin America became a Spanish colony, while Portugal became the master of the Indian Ocean and spread fifty years later to the University of Oxford The University of Oxford , located in the English city of Oxford, is the oldest surviving university in the English-speaking world and is regarded as one of the world's leading academic institutions. Although the exact date of foundation remains unclear, there is evidence of teaching there as far back as the 11th century. The University grew.

The first founded of surviving European academies, the Academia Naturae Curiosorum (1651 Year 1651 was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday (Julian-1651) of the 10-day slower Julian calendar)) confined itself to the description and illustration of the structure of plants Plants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. They include familiar organisms such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The scientific study of plants, known as botany, has identified about 350,000 extant species of plants, defined as seed plants, bryophytes, ferns and fern allies. As of 2004, and animals Animals are a major group of mostly multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently. All animals are also; eleven years later, the Royal Society of London The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as the Royal Society, is a learned society for science, and is arguably the oldest such society in existence. Founded in November 1660, it was granted a Royal Charter by King Charles II as the "Royal Society of London". The Society was initially an was incorporated by royal charter In medieval Europe, royal charters were used to create cities . The date that such a charter was granted is considered to be when a city was "founded", regardless of when the locality originally began to be settled.

A little later the Academy of Sciences An Academy of Sciences is a national academy or another learned society dedicated to sciences of Paris Paris ([paʁi] in French, pronounced /ˈpærɪs/ in English) is the capital and largest city of France. It is situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region (or Paris Region, French: Région parisienne). The city of Paris, within its administrative limits largely unchanged since 1860, has an estimated was established by Louis XIV Louis XIV , known as the Sun King (French: le Roi Soleil), was King of France and of Navarre. His reign, from 1643 to his death in 1715, began at the age of four and lasted seventy-two years, three months, and eighteen days, and is the longest documented reign of any European monarch. Collectors and systematisers reached maturity in the latter part of the 18th century However, Western historians may sometimes specifically define the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. For example, the "short" 18th century may be defined as 1715–1789, denoting the period of time between the death of Louis XIV of France and the start of the French Revolution with an emphasis on directly in Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus [a 2] (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus [a 3], also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné , 23 May[a 1] 1707 – 10 January 1778) was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of binomial nomenclature. He is known as the father of modern taxonomy, and is also considered one of, other anatomists such as John Hunter also set to work to examine anatomically the whole animal kingdom and to classify its members by aid of the results of careful study. Leeuwenhoek Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek (born on October 24, 1632 and died on August 26, 1723 – buried on August 30) was a Dutch tradesman and scientist from Delft, Netherlands. He is commonly known as "the Father of Microbiology", and considered to be the first microbiologist. He is best known for his work on the improvement of the microscope, a Dutch tailor and naturalist, introduced another revolution with his construction of the first microscope A microscope is an instrument to see objects too small for the naked eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy. Microscopic means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope.

It was not until the 19th century The 19th century was a period in history marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. This paved the way for the growing influence of the British Empire, the German Empire and the United States, spurring military conflicts but also advances in science and exploration that the microscope A microscope is an instrument to see objects too small for the naked eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy. Microscopic means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope was improved and accomplished for zoology what some consider to be its most important service. The perfecting of the microscope A microscope is an instrument to see objects too small for the naked eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy. Microscopic means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope led to an improved comprehension of cell structure The cell is the functional basic unit of life. It was discovered by Robert Hooke and is the functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. Some organisms, such as most bacteria, are unicellular . Other organisms, such as humans, and the establishment of the Cell Theory Cell theory refers to the idea that cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing. Development of this theory during the mid 1600s was made possible by advances in microscopy. This theory is one of the foundations of biology. The theory says that new cells are formed from other existing cells, and that the cell is a fundamental unit:

1. That all organisms are either single cells The cell is the functional basic unit of life. It was discovered by Robert Hooke and is the functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. Some organisms, such as most bacteria, are unicellular . Other organisms, such as humans, or built of many cells;
2. That all organisms begin their existence as a single cell, which multiplies by binary fission Binary fission, or prokaryotic fission, is the form of asexual reproduction and cell division used by all prokaryotic and some organelles within eukaryotic organisms. This process results in the reproduction of a living prokaryotic cell by division into two parts which each have the potential to grow to the size of the original cell, the products growing in size and multiplying similarly by binary fission Binary fission, or prokaryotic fission, is the form of asexual reproduction and cell division used by all prokaryotic and some organelles within eukaryotic organisms. This process results in the reproduction of a living prokaryotic cell by division into two parts which each have the potential to grow to the size of the original cell; and
3. That the life of a multicellular organism is the sum of the activities of the cells of which it consists and that the processes of life must be studied in and their explanation obtained from an understanding of the chemical and physical changes which go on in each individual cell of living material or protoplasm Protoplasm is the living content of a cell that is surrounded by a plasma membrane. This term is not commonly used in modern cell biology. Protoplasm is composed of a mixture of small molecules such as ions, amino acids, monosaccharides and water, and macromolecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, lipids and polysaccharides. In eukaryotes the.

The contributions of individuals such as William Harvey William Harvey was an English physician who was the first to describe correctly and in exact detail the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped around the body by the heart (the circulation of blood), Carolus Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus [a 2] (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus [a 3], also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné , 23 May[a 1] 1707 – 10 January 1778) was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of binomial nomenclature. He is known as the father of modern taxonomy, and is also considered one of (system of nomenclature), Georges Buffon (natural history), Georges Cuvier Georges Léopold Chrétien Frédéric Dagobert Cuvier was a French naturalist and zoologist. Of working class origins, he belonged to a new class of self-made scholars who worked their way to the top of academe. Cuvier was a major figure in natural sciences research in the early 19th century, and was instrumental in establishing the fields of (comparative anatomy), and Claude Bernard Claude Bernard was a French physiologist. Historian of science I. Bernard Cohen of Harvard University called Bernard "one of the greatest of all men of science". Among many other accomplishments, he was one of the first to suggest the use of blind experiments to ensure the objectivity of scientific observations (homeostasis) greatly advanced the field. Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species, published on 24 November 1859, is a seminal work of scientific literature, considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology.

Systems of classification

Morphography is the systematic exploration, tabulation and characterization of data concerning animals, existing or extinct. It is similar to ethnography. Groups of people who have contributed to the field include past museum-makers of and their modern descendants, the curators and annotators of zoological collections, early explorers and modern naturalist travelers and writers collectors of fossils and paleontologists.

Subfields and fields related to zoology

Although the study of animal life is ancient, its scientific incarnation is relatively modern. This mirrors the transition from natural history to biology at the start of the nineteenth century. Since Hunter and Cuvier, comparative anatomical study has been associated with morphography shapins the modern areas of zoological investigation: anatomy, physiology, histology, embryology, and animal behaviour. Modern zoology first arose in German and British universities. In Britain, Thomas Henry Huxley was a prominent figure. His ideas were centered on the morphology of animals. Many consider him the greatest comparative anatomist of the latter half of the nineteenth century. Similar to Hunter, his courses were composed of lectures and laboratory practical classes in contrast the previous format of lectures only. This system became widely spread.

Gradually zoology expanded beyond Huxley's comparative anatomy to include the following sub-disciplines:

• Zoography, also known as descriptive zoology, describes animals and their habitats.
• Comparative anatomy studies the structure of animals.
• Animal physiology
• Behavioral ecology
• Ethology is the study of animal behaviour.
• The various taxonomically oriented disciplines such as mammalogy, herpetology, ornithology and entomology identify and classify species and study the structures and mechanisms specific to those groups.

Related fields:

• Evolutionary biology: Development of both animals and plants is considered in the articles on evolution, population genetics, heredity, variation, Mendelism, reproduction.
• Molecular Biology studies the common genetic and developmental mechanisms of animals and plants
• Palaeontology
• Systematics, cladistics, phylogenetics, phylogeography, biogeography and taxonomy classify and group species via common descent and regional associations.

See also

• Outline of zoology
• List of zoologists
• Important Publications in Zoology
• Timeline of zoology
• Zoological distribution
• Zootomy - the study of animal anatomy or animal dissection

References

1. ^ "Zoology". Dictionary.com. http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=zoology. Retrieved 26 April 2007.
2. ^ Albertus Magnus. On Animals: A Medieval Summa Zoologica. The Review of Metaphysics | December 01, 2001 | Tkacz, Michael W.

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Hugh Chisholm, ed (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press.

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